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restore fighting

  • 1 восстанавливать

    Авиация и космонавтика. Русско-английский словарь > восстанавливать

  • 2 боеспособность

    Русско-английский военно-политический словарь > боеспособность

  • 3 восстанавливать

    1. restored
    2. restore

    Русско-английский словарь по информационным технологиям > восстанавливать

  • 4 восстанавливать

    1. reduced
    2. reduce
    3. recovered; restored
    4. recover; restore

    Русско-английский научный словарь > восстанавливать

  • 5 восстанавливать

    1. гл. restore, recover, reclaim
    2. гл. хим. reduce
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. возобновлять (глаг.) возобновлять; воскрешать
    2. возрождать (глаг.) возрождать; воскрешать; воссоздавать; отстраивать заново; поднимать из пепла; поднимать из руин; реставрировать
    3. настраивать (глаг.) возбуждать; настраивать; ополчать

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > восстанавливать

  • 6 восстанавливать боеспособность

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > восстанавливать боеспособность

  • 7 восстановить боеспособность

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > восстановить боеспособность

  • 8 восстановит

    Авиация и космонавтика. Русско-английский словарь > восстановит

  • 9 reparar

    v.
    1 to repair, to fix (coche, aparato).
    Reparamos las ventanas rotas We repaired the broken windows.
    2 to rear, to buck, to rise on the hind legs, to shy.
    3 to redress.
    Los abogados repararon a Ricardo The lawyers redressed Richard.
    * * *
    1 (arreglar) to repair, mend, fix
    2 (remediar - daño) to make good; (- perjuicio, insulto) to make up for
    3 (vengarse) to avenge
    4 (restablecer) to restore, renew
    5 (reflexionar) to consider
    6 (corregir) to correct
    7 (advertir) to see, notice
    1 (advertir) to notice, see
    2 (darse cuenta) to realize (en, -)
    3 (hacer caso) to pay attention to; (considerar) to consider
    4 (detenerse) to stop, stall
    \
    no reparar en gastos to spare no expense
    reparar en detalles to pay attention to detail
    * * *
    verb
    to repair, fix
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=arreglar) to repair, mend, fix
    2) [+ energías] to restore; [+ fortunas] to retrieve
    3) [+ ofensa] to make amends for; [+ suerte] to retrieve; [+ daño, pérdida] to make good; [+ consecuencia] to undo
    4) [+ golpe] to parry
    5) (=observar) to observe, notice
    6) Cono Sur (=imitar) to mimic, imitate
    2. VI
    1)

    reparar en — (=darse cuenta de) to observe, notice

    2)

    reparar en — (=poner atención en) to pay attention to, take heed of; (=considerar) to consider

    repara en lo que vas a hacer — consider what you are going to do, reflect on what you are going to do

    3) LAm [caballo] to rear, buck
    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) < coche> to repair, fix; <gotera/avería> to mend, fix
    2) <fuerzas/energías> to restore
    3) < error> to correct, put right; <ofensa/agravio> to make amends for, make up for; <daño/perjuicio> to make good, compensate for
    2.
    1)
    a) (considerar, pensar) (gen en frases negativas)

    reparar EN algo: no repara en gastos she spares no expense; no repararon en sus advertencias — they took no notice of o paid no heed to his warnings

    2) (Méx) caballo/toro to rear, shy
    * * *
    = mend, repair, undo, redress, fix, right.
    Ex. In some organisations microcomputers will be maintained (that is, mended) by a central computer department, but if this is not the case it may be necessary to take out separate maintenance contracts.
    Ex. In the more common perspective of linear causality, we seek to explain a negative consequence by searching for its root cause and repairing it.
    Ex. The National Library of Estonia, established in 1918, is undergoing a revolutionary period of undoing the effects of the cultural policies of the communist regime.
    Ex. To redress this iniquity women are demanding not only equal pay for equal work, but equal pay for work of equal value.
    Ex. There is always a need to fix manually the formatting of articles taken from an online service such as DIALOG.
    Ex. The author questions whether this is a transitional phenomenon which will be righted later.
    ----
    * no reparar en gastos = lash out (on).
    * reparar daños = repair + the damage, remedy + the damage.
    * reparar un agravio = right + a wrong, right + an injustice, make + amends (for/to).
    * reparar un daño = right + a wrong, make + amends (for/to).
    * reparar un perjuicio = make + amends (for/to).
    * sin reparar = unrepaired.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1) < coche> to repair, fix; <gotera/avería> to mend, fix
    2) <fuerzas/energías> to restore
    3) < error> to correct, put right; <ofensa/agravio> to make amends for, make up for; <daño/perjuicio> to make good, compensate for
    2.
    1)
    a) (considerar, pensar) (gen en frases negativas)

    reparar EN algo: no repara en gastos she spares no expense; no repararon en sus advertencias — they took no notice of o paid no heed to his warnings

    2) (Méx) caballo/toro to rear, shy
    * * *
    = mend, repair, undo, redress, fix, right.

    Ex: In some organisations microcomputers will be maintained (that is, mended) by a central computer department, but if this is not the case it may be necessary to take out separate maintenance contracts.

    Ex: In the more common perspective of linear causality, we seek to explain a negative consequence by searching for its root cause and repairing it.
    Ex: The National Library of Estonia, established in 1918, is undergoing a revolutionary period of undoing the effects of the cultural policies of the communist regime.
    Ex: To redress this iniquity women are demanding not only equal pay for equal work, but equal pay for work of equal value.
    Ex: There is always a need to fix manually the formatting of articles taken from an online service such as DIALOG.
    Ex: The author questions whether this is a transitional phenomenon which will be righted later.
    * no reparar en gastos = lash out (on).
    * reparar daños = repair + the damage, remedy + the damage.
    * reparar un agravio = right + a wrong, right + an injustice, make + amends (for/to).
    * reparar un daño = right + a wrong, make + amends (for/to).
    * reparar un perjuicio = make + amends (for/to).
    * sin reparar = unrepaired.

    * * *
    reparar [A1 ]
    vt
    A (arreglar) ‹coche› to repair, mend, fix; ‹gotera/avería› to mend, fix
    B ‹fuerzas/energías› to restore
    C ‹error› to correct, put right; ‹ofensa/agravio› to make amends for, make up for; ‹daño/perjuicio› to make good, compensate for
    ■ reparar
    vi
    A
    1 (considerar, pensar) ( gen en frases negativas) reparar EN algo:
    no repara en gastos she doesn't think o worry about the cost, she spares no expense
    no repararon en sus advertencias they took no notice of o paid no heed to his warnings
    reparó en las manchas del techo she noticed the stains on the ceiling
    les hizo reparar en la calidad del tejido he drew their attention to the quality of the cloth
    como si no hubiera reparado en mi presencia as if he hadn't even noticed I was there, as if he hadn't registered my presence
    B ( Méx) «caballo/toro» to rear, shy
    * * *

     

    reparar ( conjugate reparar) verbo transitivo
    a) ‹ coche› to repair, fix;

    ‹gotera/avería› to mend, fix

    ‹ofensa/agravio› to make amends for, make up for;
    ‹daño/perjuicio› to make good, compensate for
    verbo intransitivo
    1 reparar EN algo ( darse cuenta) to notice sth;
    ( considerar):

    2 (Méx) [caballo/toro] to rear, shy
    reparar
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (una máquina, etc) to repair, mend
    2 (un daño, error, una pérdida) to make good: nadie puede reparar la pérdida de un ser querido, no one can make up for the loss of a beloved one
    (una ofensa) to make amends for: no sé cómo reparar el mal que te causé, I don't know how to make amends for all the harm I did you
    3 (fuerzas, energías) necesitas reparar fuerzas, you need to get your strength back
    II verbo intransitivo
    1 (darse cuenta de, fijarse en) to notice [en, -]
    2 (considerar) to consider: repara en que será ella la que salga perdiendo, you should realise that she's the one who'll end up losing
    ' reparar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    componer
    - nogalina
    English:
    fix
    - fix up
    - good
    - mend
    - recondition
    - redress
    - repair
    - amends
    - atone
    - remedy
    - right
    - spare
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [vehículo, aparato] to repair, to fix;
    llevar algo a reparar to take sth to be repaired o fixed
    2. [error, daño] to make amends for, to make up for
    3. [fuerzas] to restore
    ♦ vi
    [percatarse]
    no reparó en que una de las ruedas estaba pinchada he didn't notice that one of the tyres had a puncture;
    ¿reparaste en la cara que pusieron? did you see their expression?;
    no repara en los posibles obstáculos she doesn't realize the possible pitfalls;
    no reparar en gastos to spare no expense
    * * *
    I v/t repair;
    reparar fuerzas get one’s strength back
    II v/i
    :
    reparar en algo notice sth;
    no reparar en gastos not worry about the cost
    * * *
    1) : to repair, to fix, to mend
    2) : to make amends for
    3) : to correct
    4) : to restore, to refresh
    1)
    reparar en : to observe, to take notice of
    2)
    reparar en : to consider, to think about
    * * *
    1. (arreglar) to repair / to mend
    2. (fijarse) to notice

    Spanish-English dictionary > reparar

  • 10 восстановить

    1. renew
    2. re-establish
    3. rebuild
    4. reconstitute
    5. reinstate
    6. deoxidize
    7. desoxidate
    8. reclaim
    9. recover
    10. recuperate
    11. regain
    12. revivify
    13. reconstruct; restore; stir up; dispose
    14. renovate
    15. restore
    16. retrieve
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. настроить (глаг.) возбудить; настроить; ополчить
    2. отстроить заново (глаг.) возобновить; возродить; воскресить; воссоздать; отстроить заново; поднять из пепла; поднять из руин; реставрировать

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > восстановить

  • 11 golpe

    m.
    1 blow (impacto).
    tengo un golpe en el brazo I've banged my arm
    el coche tiene un golpe en la puerta the car door has a dent in it
    moler a alguien a golpes to beat somebody up
    un golpe bajo (sport) a blow below the belt; a low blow (figurative)
    golpe franco free kick
    2 blow (disgusto).
    3 raid, job (holdup).
    dar un golpe to do a job
    4 witticism (ocurrencia).
    5 shot.
    6 ictus.
    7 coup.
    8 pocket, hill drop.
    * * *
    1 blow, knock (puñetazo) punch
    2 (de coche) collision; (fuerte) bang; (ligero) bump
    3 figurado (desgracia) blow, misfortune
    4 (gracia) witticism, sally
    ■ aunque parece serio tiene golpes muy buenos he may seem rather serious, but he's really good crack
    5 familiar (robo) hold-up, robbery
    6 (militar) coup
    \
    a golpes by force
    al primer golpe de vista at first glance
    de golpe / de golpe y porrazo suddenly, all of a sudden
    de un golpe all at once, in one go
    no dar golpe / no pegar ni golpe familiar not to lift a finger, not do a blessed thing
    parar el golpe to soften the blow
    golpe bajo figurado punch below the belt
    golpe de efecto dramatic move
    golpe de Estado coup, coup d'état
    golpe de fortuna stroke of luck
    golpe de gracia coup de grâce
    golpe de mano surprise attack
    golpe de vista quick glance
    golpe maestro masterstroke
    golpe mortal death blow, fatal blow
    * * *
    noun m.
    1) blow
    •
    - golpe de estado
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=impacto) hit, knock; (=choque) shock, clash; (=encuentro) bump; [con un remo] stroke; [del corazón] beat, throb

    • dar un golpe, el coche de atrás nos dio un golpe — the car behind ran into us

    • darse un golpe, se dio un golpe en la cabeza — he got a bump on his head, he banged his head

    • errar el golpe — to fail in an attempt

    2) [dado por una persona a otra] blow

    le dio un golpe con un palo — he gave him a blow with his stick, he hit him with his stick

    • a golpes, la emprendieron a golpes contra él — they began to beat him

    • descargar golpes sobre algn — to rain blows on sb

    golpe aplastante — crushing blow, knockout blow

    golpe bien dado — hit, well-aimed blow

    3) (Med) (=cardenal) bruise
    4) [en deportes] (Ftbl) kick; (Boxeo) [gen] blow; (=puñetazo) punch

    con un total de 280 golpes — (Golf) with a total of 280 strokes

    preparar el golpe — (Golf) to address the ball

    golpe bajo — (Boxeo) low punch, punch below the belt

    golpe de acercamiento — (Golf) approach shot

    golpe de castigo — (Ftbl etc) penalty kick

    golpe de martillo — (Tenis) smash

    golpe de penalidad — (Golf) penalty stroke

    golpe de salida — (Golf) drive, drive-off

    golpe franco, golpe libre — (Ftbl) free kick

    5) (Téc) stroke
    6) (=desgracia) blow

    ha sufrido un duro golpe — he has had a hard knock, he has suffered a severe blow

    7) (=sorpresa) surprise

    • dar el golpe con algo — to cause a sensation with sth

    8) * (=atraco) job *, heist (EEUU)
    9) (=salida) witticism, sally

    ¡qué golpe! — how very clever!, good one!

    10) (Pol) coup

    golpe de mano — rising, sudden attack

    11) [otras expresiones]

    • a golpe de, abrir paso a golpe de machete — to hack out a path with a machete

    • al golpe — Caribe instantly

    • de golpe, la puerta se abrió de golpe — the door flew open

    • de un golpe — in one go

    golpe de mar — heavy sea, surge

    golpe de vista, al primer golpe de vista — at first glance

    golpe maestro — master stroke, stroke of genius

    12) (Cos) (=adorno) pocket flap; Col (=vuelta) facing
    13) Méx (=mazo) sledgehammer
    14) Caribe * (=trago) swig *, slug * ( of liquor)
    * * *
    1) (choque, impacto) knock

    cerró el libro de un golpe — she snapped o slammed the book shut

    dio unos golpes en la mesa — he tapped on the table; ( más fuerte) he knocked on the table; ( aún más fuerte) he banged on the table

    a golpe de — (Ven) around

    de golpe — ( repentinamente) suddenly; ( quizás) (Col fam) maybe, perhaps

    la puerta se abrió/cerró de golpe — the door flew open/slammed shut

    de golpe y porrazo — (fam) ( de repente) suddenly

    de un golpe — ( de una vez) all at once; ( de un trago) in one go o gulp

    2)

    le dio or pegó un golpe en la cabeza — she hit him on the head

    b) ( marca) bruise, mark
    3) (Dep) ( en golf) stroke; ( en tenis) shot
    4) (desgracia, contratiempo) blow
    5) (fam) (atraco, timo) job (colloq)
    6) (fam) (ocurrencia, salida) funny o witty remark
    •
    * * *
    1) (choque, impacto) knock

    cerró el libro de un golpe — she snapped o slammed the book shut

    dio unos golpes en la mesa — he tapped on the table; ( más fuerte) he knocked on the table; ( aún más fuerte) he banged on the table

    a golpe de — (Ven) around

    de golpe — ( repentinamente) suddenly; ( quizás) (Col fam) maybe, perhaps

    la puerta se abrió/cerró de golpe — the door flew open/slammed shut

    de golpe y porrazo — (fam) ( de repente) suddenly

    de un golpe — ( de una vez) all at once; ( de un trago) in one go o gulp

    2)

    le dio or pegó un golpe en la cabeza — she hit him on the head

    b) ( marca) bruise, mark
    3) (Dep) ( en golf) stroke; ( en tenis) shot
    4) (desgracia, contratiempo) blow
    5) (fam) (atraco, timo) job (colloq)
    6) (fam) (ocurrencia, salida) funny o witty remark
    •
    * * *
    golpe1
    1 = punch, coup, blow, rap, knocking, beat, knock, swipe, hit, bang.

    Ex: When I saw what he was up to, I drew back for a punch and hit him so hard on the nose that he fell on his back and lay there for some time, so that his wife stood over him and cried out 'Mercy! You've done my husband in!'.

    Ex: Nearly 1500 delegates from 67 countries attended the conference which was dominated by the 3 day coup designed to restore Communist party influence.
    Ex: The Great War of 1914-18 was a heavy blow for the Bulletin, from which it never really recovered, and in the 1920s it gradually sank under its own weight, helped by a forced move from its previous quarters to make room for a trade fair.
    Ex: There was also a spot from which, if you struck the floor with a hard rap of your heel, you could almost count the reverberations as the sound bounced from floor to ceiling to walls to floor.
    Ex: It seems to me that the Dewey engine is still ticking over, though there's an occasional knocking and it could no doubt do with a good tuning.
    Ex: Immediately after the recognition of a cardiac cycle the program calculates mean values over a given time or a given number of beats.
    Ex: After a few knocks, it was clear that no one was going to answer.
    Ex: In fact it is an exaltation of the Kyoto protocol and a thinly disguised swipe at those countries who have not signed up.
    Ex: Nothing is more unrealistic that seeing the hero take in an unlikely number of hits without turning a hair.
    Ex: This is how the world ends, not with a bang, but with a whimper.
    * aguantar un golpe = take + a hit.
    * amortiguar el golpe = soften + the blow.
    * aprender Algo a fuerza de golpes = learn + Nombre + the hard way.
    * asestar el golpe de gracia = administer + the coup de grace, deliver + the coup de grace.
    * asestar un golpe = give + a blow, bash, deal + a blow, strike + a blow.
    * asestar un golpe mortal = deal + the death blow.
    * atizar un golpe = deal + a blow.
    * cerrar de golpe = slam.
    * dar el golpe de gracia = administer + the coup de grace, deliver + the coup de grace.
    * dar golpes = pound.
    * darse golpes de pecho = beat + Posesivo + breast.
    * darse golpes en el pecho = beat + Posesivo + breast.
    * dar un golpe = knock.
    * dar un golpe por detrás = rear-end.
    * de golpe = in one lump, all at once, all at once.
    * derribar a Alguien de un golpe = knock + Nombre + to the ground, knock + Nombre + to the floor.
    * de un golpe = at one blow, at one whack, at one pull, in one shot, in one lump, in one action, in one go, in one fell swoop, at one fell swoop.
    * duro golpe = cruel blow.
    * eliminar de un golpe = eliminate + at a stroke.
    * emprenderla(s) a golpes con = lam into, lay into.
    * encajar el golpe = take it on + the chin.
    * golpe de estado = coup d'etat, putsch.
    * golpe de gracia = coup de grace, kiss of death, killer blow, death blow.
    * golpe de mala suerte = stroke of misfortune.
    * golpe de suerte = stroke of luck.
    * golpe fuerte = whack.
    * golpe fulminante = crushing blow.
    * golpe mortal = mortal blow, killer blow, death blow.
    * golpe por detrás = rear end.
    * golpe seco = flop.
    * intento de golpe de estado = attempted coup, coup attempt.
    * introducir a golpes = hammer into.
    * quitar con un golpe = knock off.
    * recibir un golpe = take + a hit.
    * recobrarse de un golpe = lick + Posesivo + wounds.
    * sacar a golpes = punch out.
    * tentativa de golpe de estado = attempted coup, coup attempt.
    * tirar a Alguien al suelo de un golpe = knock + Nombre + to the floor, knock + Nombre + to the ground.
    * todo de (un) golpe = all at once.
    * tumbar a Alguien al suelo de un golpe = knock + Nombre + to the floor, knock + Nombre + to the ground.
    * vivir sin dar golpe = live off + the fat of the land.

    golpe2
    2 = witticism, witty remark, quip.

    Ex: It uses humor rather than witticisms, and self-deprecation rather than deprecation of the professional field.

    Ex: Youll never be short on a witty remark with a database of almost 180000 jokes.
    Ex: His genius is sometimes most evident in his quips.

    * * *
    A (choque, impacto) knock
    se dio un golpe contra la pared she banged o knocked into the wall
    me di un golpe en la cabeza I hit o banged my head
    te vas a pegar un golpe you'll hurt yourself
    ¿ha recibido algún golpe en la cabeza? have you hit your head?, have you received a blow to the head? ( frml)
    cerró el libro de un golpe she snapped o slammed the book shut
    la ventana se cerró de un golpe the window slammed shut
    me dio un golpe en la espalda he slapped me on the back
    le di un golpecito en el hombro I tapped him on the shoulder
    dale un golpe a ver si se arregla hit it o bang it o give it a bang, that might make it work
    dio unos golpes en la mesa he tapped on the table; (más fuerte) he knocked on the table; (aún más fuerte) he banged on the table
    nos dieron un golpe por detrás they ran into us from behind, they ran into the back of us
    se oían los golpes del martillo one could hear the hammering
    a golpe de ( Ven); around, about ( BrE)
    (Col, Ven fam) (quizás) maybe, perhaps
    no se lo puedes decir así, de golpe you can't just spring it on him o tell him suddenly like that
    es una decisión que no puede tomarse de golpe y porrazo it's not a decision that can be made on the spot o just like that
    se lo bebió de un golpe he drank it down in one go o gulp
    no dar or pegar (ni) golpe ( fam): ¡cómo va a aprobar, si no da ni golpe! how can he expect to pass, he never does a lick ( AmE) o ( BrE) stroke of work ( colloq)
    no pega ni golpe en casa he doesn't do a thing o lift a finger around the house ( colloq)
    a golpe de ratón ( Inf) at a mouse click, at the click of a mouse
    toda la programación a golpe de ratón the whole program at a mouse click
    B
    le dio or pegó un golpe en la cabeza she hit him on the head
    empezaron a darle golpes they started hitting her
    casi lo matan a golpes they almost beat him to death
    parece que no entienden sino a (los) golpes hitting them seems to be the only way to make them understand
    le asestó un golpe con el atizador he dealt o struck him a blow with the poker
    me llevé un golpe en la cabeza I got a blow o I got hit on the head
    el golpe lo agarró de sorpresa the blow took him by surprise
    siempre andan a golpes they're always fighting
    lo cogieron a golpes they beat him up
    2 (marca) bruise, mark
    C ( Dep) (en golf) stroke; (en tenis) shot
    sigue en primer lugar con seis golpes bajo par she is still in first place at six (strokes) under par
    D (desgracia, contratiempo) blow
    fue un golpe durísimo it came as a terrible blow
    esta vez sí que ha acusado el golpe he's really taken it hard o taken a bad knock this time
    E ( fam) (robo, timo) job ( colloq)
    ¿cuándo vamos a dar el golpe? when are we going to do the job?
    F ( fam) (ocurrencia, salida) funny o witty remark
    ¡tiene cada golpe! he comes out with o makes some really witty remarks, some of the things he comes out with are so funny o witty
    la película tiene unos golpes muy buenos the movie has some really funny moments in it
    dar el golpe ( fam): con esa indumentaria seguro que das el golpe you'll be a sensation o you'll look a knockout in that outfit
    G ( Mús) (en Ven) folk dance/music similar to the joropo
    Compuestos:
    (en boxeo) punch below the belt
    fue un golpe bajo mencionarlo delante de todos that was below the belt o a low trick mentioning it in front of everyone
    adrenaline rush
    (insolación) sunstroke; (en la temperatura) corporal heatstroke
    penalty
    su dimisión no causó el golpe de efecto que esperaba his resignation did not create the dramatic effect he had hoped for
    coup, coup d'état
    stroke of luck
    coup de grâce
    sudden attack
    large wave
    sunstroke
    stroke of luck
    change of direction
    coughing fit
    glance, look
    (en fútbol) free kick; (en hockey) free hit
    masterstroke
    death blow, coup de grâce
    mpl:
    darse golpes de pecho to beat one's breast, wear sackcloth and ashes
    * * *

     

    golpe sustantivo masculino
    1 (choque, impacto) knock;

    darse un golpe contra algo to bang o knock into sth;
    dio unos golpes en la mesa he tapped on the table;

    ( más fuerte) he knocked on the table;
    ( aún más fuerte) he banged on the table;
    ◊ a golpe de (Ven) around;

    de golpe (y porrazo) suddenly;
    se abrió/cerró de golpe it flew open/slammed shut;
    de un golpe ( de una vez) all at once;

    ( de un trago) in one go o gulp
    2


    casi lo matan a golpes they almost beat him to death;
    siempre andan a golpes they're always fighting

    3 (Dep) stroke
    4

    b)


    5 (fam) (atraco, timo) job (colloq);

    6 (Pol) tb

    golpe sustantivo masculino
    1 (que se da o que da alguien) blow
    (en una fruta) bruise
    (en una puerta) knock
    golpe (de Estado), coup (d'état)
    golpe de suerte, stroke of luck
    2 Auto bump
    3 (contratiempo, disgusto) blow: ha sido un duro golpe para ella, it's been a great blow to her
    4 (ocurrencia) witticism: en la comedia de ayer había unos golpes buenísimos, yesterday's comedy had a lot of funny lines
    5 (robo) robbery
    dar un golpe, to rob
    6 (ataque) fit: le dio un golpe de tos y no pudo seguir hablando, he had a sudden coughing fit and couldn't continue talking
    ♦ Locuciones: no dar ni golpe, not to lift a finger
    al primer golpe de vista, at a glance
    de golpe, all of a sudden
    golpe de efecto, a dramatic effect: su dimisión en aquel momento fue un tremendo golpe de efecto, his resignation at that time had a great impact
    golpe de mar, large wave: un golpe de mar le tiró por la borda, a large wave washed him overboard
    golpe de pecho, breast-beating: había mucho golpe de pecho pero a mí no me engañaron, there was a lot of breast-beating, but they couldn't fool me
    ' golpe' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acusar
    - amoratada
    - amoratado
    - amortiguar
    - arrear
    - atizar
    - azote
    - batatazo
    - bocanada
    - cacharrazo
    - canto
    - cardenal
    - choque
    - codazo
    - contundente
    - descargar
    - desviar
    - dolerse
    - encajar
    - encima
    - enérgica
    - enérgico
    - errar
    - esquivar
    - galleta
    - herida
    - hostia
    - leche
    - menuda
    - menudo
    - mollera
    - nada
    - palo
    - panzada
    - pedrada
    - pelotazo
    - producir
    - recibir
    - resentirse
    - resistir
    - ruda
    - rudo
    - seca
    - seco
    - señalada
    - señalado
    - sorda
    - sordo
    - tacada
    - testarada
    English:
    absorb
    - accurate
    - avert
    - bang
    - bash
    - blow
    - bowl over
    - break
    - bump
    - butt
    - come round
    - come to
    - coup
    - crack
    - crushing
    - deal
    - death blow
    - deliver
    - dodge
    - drive
    - elude
    - fell
    - fend off
    - flick
    - follow through
    - forehand
    - glancing
    - hard
    - heavy
    - hit
    - hit back
    - jab
    - knock
    - lash
    - low
    - lucky
    - lump
    - mark
    - miss
    - on
    - pow
    - punch
    - rap
    - shot
    - sidestep
    - slam
    - slam to
    - smack
    - snap
    - soften
    * * *
    ♦ nm
    1. [impacto] blow;
    [en puerta] knock; [entre coches] bump;
    se oyó un golpe en el piso de arriba something went bump upstairs;
    no le des tantos golpes a la fotocopiadora stop hitting o banging the photocopier like that;
    me di un golpe en la rodilla I banged my knee;
    la ventana estaba dando golpes the window was banging;
    el golpe me lo dieron cuando estaba detenido en un semáforo they hit me o bumped into me when I was stopped at a traffic light;
    el niño daba golpes en la pared the child was banging on the wall;
    darse golpes de pecho to beat one's breast;
    cerrar la puerta de golpe to slam the door;
    devolver un golpe to strike back;
    errar o [m5] fallar el golpe to miss the mark;
    golpe seco thud;
    Fam
    dar el golpe to cause a sensation, to be a hit;
    con ese vestido seguro que das el golpe en la fiesta in that dress, you're bound to be a hit at the party;
    Fam
    no dio o [m5] pegó golpe he didn't lift a finger, he didn't do a stroke of work;
    de golpe suddenly;
    Fam
    de golpe y porrazo without warning, just like that;
    de un golpe at one fell swoop, all at once
    golpe de efecto:
    golpe de fortuna stroke of luck;
    golpe de gracia coup de grâce;
    golpe maestro masterstroke;
    golpe de mar huge wave;
    golpe de suerte stroke of luck;
    Fig golpe de timón change of course;
    golpe de tos coughing fit;
    golpe de viento gust of wind;
    2. [bofetada] smack;
    [puñetazo, en boxeo] punch;
    a golpes by force;
    Fig in fits and starts; golpe bajo blow below the belt;
    fue un golpe bajo that was a bit below the belt
    3. [de corazón] beat;
    4. [efecto]
    mira qué golpe tengo en el brazo look, I banged my arm;
    el coche tiene un golpe en la puerta the car door has a dent in it
    5. [en tenis, golf] shot;
    dos golpes por encima/debajo two shots ahead/behind;
    dos golpes bajo par two under par
    golpe de castigo [en rugby] penalty;
    golpe franco free kick;
    golpe liftado [en tenis] topspin drive;
    golpe de penalización [en golf] penalty stroke;
    golpe de salida [en golf] tee shot, drive;
    golpe de talón back heel
    6. [disgusto] blow;
    la muerte de su madre fue un golpe muy duro para ella her mother's death hit her very hard
    7. [atraco] raid, job, US heist;
    dar un golpe to do a job
    8. Pol
    golpe (de Estado) coup (d'état)
    golpe de mano surprise attack;
    golpe de palacio palace coup
    9. [ocurrencia] witticism;
    ¡tienes unos golpes buenísimos! you really come out with some witty remarks!
    10. [pestillo] spring lock
    11. Méx [mazo] sledgehammer
    ♦ a golpe de loc prep
    [a base de] through, by dint of;
    aprenderá a golpe de fracasos he'll learn from his mistakes;
    a golpe de talonario: no se puede crear un equipo a golpe de talonario you can't just build a team by throwing money at it;
    salió de la cárcel a golpe de talonario he used his wealth to buy his way out of prison
    ♦ al golpe loc adv
    Cuba instantly
    * * *
    m
    1 knock, blow;
    un duro golpe fig a heavy blow;
    no da golpe fam she doesn’t do a thing, she doesn’t lift a finger
    2
    :
    de golpe suddenly;
    * * *
    golpe nm
    1) : blow
    caerle a golpes a alguien: to give someone a beating
    2) : knock
    3)
    de golpe : suddenly
    4)
    de un golpe : all at once, in one fell swoop
    5)
    golpe de estado : coup, coup d'etat
    6)
    golpe de suerte : stroke of luck
    * * *
    1. (choque) blow
    Aunque la traducción literal de golpe es blow, el inglés prefiere emplear un verbo
    2. (ruido) knock / bang
    3. (desgracia) blow
    de un golpe all at once / in one go
    no dar golpe not to do a thing / to be bone idle

    Spanish-English dictionary > golpe

  • 12 сила

    1. strength, force
    (мощ) power, might
    (степен на сила) intensity, vehemence, violence
    (енергия) energy, vigour, stamina
    (насилие) force, violence
    сила на вятъра strength of the wind
    сила на светлината/на електрически ток intensity of light/of an electric current
    сила на притеглянето физ. attraction
    сила на сцеплението физ. cohesion
    сила на съпротивлението физ. resistance
    сила на тежестта физ. gravity
    гравитационна сила attraction of gravity
    сила на глас carrying power of a voice
    сила на звук volume/intensity of a sound
    сила на удар shock of a blow
    сила на експлозия force/shock of an explosion
    сила на мускулите muscular strength
    сила на болест virulence of a disease
    силата на слънцето the power of the sun
    физическа сила physical force, bodily strength
    конска сила horse power (съкр. h. p.)
    двигателна/електродвижеща/ударна сила rootive/electromotive/striking power
    силата на младостта the vigour of youth
    сила на волята will-power, strength of will
    сила на духа strength of mind, fortitude
    силата на паметта the tenacity of memory
    силата на примера the power of example
    жизнена сила vigour, vitality
    вътрешни сили internal resources
    скрита сила hidden strength
    скрити сили hidden forces, latent powers
    груба сила brute force
    със сила by main force, ( насилствено) forcibly, through violence
    с все/всичка сила, с всички сили violently; with all o.'s might, with might and main; for all one is worth
    разг. with tooth and nail
    (за звук) full blast
    викам с все сила cry at the top of o.'s voice
    послужвам си със сила use force, take violent action
    давам сила на lend force/strength to
    защитни сили на организма staying powers, forces/powers of resistance
    тъмни сили dark/sinister forces
    според силите си, доколкото ми стигат силите as much as one is able, according to o.'s powers, to the best of o.'s power/ability, to the utmost of o.'s capacity; as far as o.'s powers go, to the extent of o.'s powers
    правя всичко, което ми е по силите do everything within o.'s power
    напълно по силите на well within the reach of
    не но силите на beyond the powers of; too much for
    това не ми е по силите I am not equal to/not up to this, it is beyond my powers, it is too much for me
    разг. this beats me
    (не съм компетентен) it is beyond my reach/scope
    нямам вече сили, не са ми оставали сили, на края на силите си съм have no strength left, разг. be at the end of o.'s tether
    нямам сили да be too weak to
    не ми останаха сили разг. I am quite knocked up
    губя сили lose strength, grow weaker, break up
    силите ми ме напускат my strength is failing me/is giving way
    намирам сили в себе си find the strength, find enough strength in o.s., trust o.s., have it in one, find it in one (да to)
    хабя силите си spend/waste o.'s strength, dissipate o.'s energy/energies
    изчерпвам силите на exhaust the power/strength of
    възстановявам силите си restore o.'s forces/energies, recover o.'s strength
    събирам сили work up/gather/muster strength
    пазя силите си keep o.'s strength
    пестя силите си save o.'s energies
    черпя сили от draw o.'s strength from
    напрягам силите си, работя свръх силите си strain o.s
    * * *
    сѝла,
    ж., -и 1. strength, force; forcefulness; ( мощ) power, might; ( степен на сила) intensity, vehemence, violence; ( енергия) energy, vigour, stamina; ( насилие) force, violence; бягам/тътря с все \силаа run/set off at full pelt; викам с все \силаа cry at the top of o.’s voice; възстановявам \силаите си restore o.’s forces/energies, recover o.’s strength; вътрешни \силаи internal resources; гравитационна \силаа физ. attraction of gravity; груба \силаа brute force; губя \силаи lose strength, grow weaker, break up; двигателна/електродвижеща/ударна \силаа motive/electromotive/striking power; жизнена \силаа vigour, vitality; защитни \силаи на организма staying power, forces/powers of resistance; изчерпвам \силаите на exhaust the power/strength of; конска \силаа horse power, съкр. h.p.; намирам \силаи в себе си find the strength, find enough strength in o.s., trust o.s., have it in one, find it in one (да to); напрягам всички \силаи да strain every muscle; напрягам \силаите си, работя свръх \силаите си strain o.s. (to the utmost), overtax o.s.; напълно по \силаите на well within the reach of; не ми останаха \силаи разг. I am quite knocked up; не мога да намеря \силаи да I can’t bring myself to; нямам \силаи да be too weak to; пазя \силаите си keep o.’s strength; пестя \силаите си save o.’s energies; политика от позиция на \силаата a-position-of-strength policy; правя всичко, което е по \силаите ми do everything within o.’s power; с все/всичка \силаа, с всички \силаи violently; with all o.’s might, with might and main; for all one is worth; разг. with tooth and nail, flat out; (за звук) full blast; с последни \силаи by a last effort; \силаа на болест virulence of a disease; \силаа на волята will-power, strength of will; \силаа на вятъра strength of the wind; \силаа на глас carrying power of a voice; \силаа на духа strength of mind, fortitude; \силаа на експлозия force/shock of an explosion; \силаа на звук volume/intensity of a sound; \силаа на мускулите muscular strength; \силаа на притеглянето физ. attraction; \силаа на светлината/на електрическия ток intensity of light/of an electric current; \силаа на сцеплението физ. cohesion; \силаа на съпротивлението физ. resistance; \силаа на тежестта физ. gravity; \силаа на удар shock of a blow; \силаата на паметта the tenacity of memory; \силаата на слънцето the power of the sun; \силаите ми ме напускат my strength is failing me/is giving way; скрити \силаи hidden forces, latent powers; според \силаите си, доколкото ми стигат \силаите as much as one is able, according to o.’s powers, to the best of o.’s power/ability, to the utmost of o.’s capacity; as far as o.’s powers go, to the extent of o.’s power; събирам \силаи work up/gather/muster strength; със \силаа by main force, ( насилствено) forcibly, through violence; със собствени \силаи by o.’s own efforts; това не ми е по \силаите I am not equal to/not up to this, it is beyond my powers, it is too much for me; разг. this beats me; I can’t hack this; (не съм компетентен) it is beyond my reach/scope; тъмни \силаи dark/sinister forces; употреба на \силаа use of force; физическа \силаа physical force, bodily strength; разг. beef; elbow-grease; хабя \силаите си spend/waste o.’s strength, dissipate o.’s energy/energies; черпя \силаи от draw o.’s strength from;
    2. юр. effect; force; validity; в \силаа съм (за закон и пр.) hold; be valid; be in force; влизам в \силаа come into force/effect, become effective/operative, take effect; законът е в \силаа от днес the law is effective from today; заповедта е в \силаа the order stands; нямам законна \силаа be null and void; оставам в \силаа remain valid, continue in force; по \силаата на закона on the strength of the law, under the law; по \силаата на съдебно решение/споразумение under a court order/an agreement; със законна \силаа legally binding;
    3. ( изтъкнат деец, талант) talent; млади \силаи young/new talent, young energies, new blood;
    4. само мн. ( група с влияние) forces; враждебни \силаи hostile powers; разпределение на \силаи alignment of forces; революционни/демократически \силаи revolutionary/democratic forces;
    5. само мн. воен. forces; военновъздушни \силаи air-force, ( английски) Royal Air Force, съкр. RAF; въоръжени \силаи armed forces; главните \силаи the main body; морски/сухопътни \силаи naval/land forces; превъзхождащи \силаи superior force(s); сухопътни, морски и въздушни \силаи the fighting forces; съсредоточаване на \силаи build-up; • в \силаата си at o.’s height, (за човек и пр.) in o.’s prime; Великите \силаи истор., полит. the great powers; договарящи се \силаи contracting powers; по \силаата на by/in virtue of, on the strength of; по \силаата на обстоятелствата owing to the force of circumstances, by force of circumstances; по \силаата на това on that ground; according; by implication; производителни \силаи productive forces; работна \силаа икон. labour.
    * * *
    force: use сила against - използвам сила срещу, democratic силаs - демократични сили, air-сила - военновъздушни сили; strength: He found the сила to overcome the pain. - Той намери сили да преодолее болката., You need a vacation to recover your сила. - Трябва да отидеш на почивка, за да възстановиш силите си., draw сила from - черпя сили от; power: horse сила - конска сила, She obtains inner сила.- Тя притежава вътрешна сила., staying силаs - защитни сили, electric сила - електрическа сила; might (мощ); (степен на сила): intensity; violence; vehemence; manitou (природна); acuteness; effect (юр.); energy: He works with inexhaustible сила. - Той работи с неизчерпаема сила.; impetus; medium; mightiness; muscle (мускулна); pith; potency; stringency (на довод); verve; vigour; vim (разг.); virility; virtue: by сила of the circumstances - по силата на обстоятелствата; volume (на звук)
    * * *
    1. (енергия) energy, vigour, stamina 2. (за звук) full blast 3. (мощ) power, might 4. (насилие) force, violence 5. (не съм компетентен) it is beyond my reach/scope 6. (степен на сила) intensity, vehemence, violence 7. strength, force 8. СИЛА на болест virulence of a disease 9. СИЛА на волята will-power, strength of will 10. СИЛА на вятъра strength of the wind 11. СИЛА на глас carrying power of a voice 12. СИЛА на духа strength of mind, fortitude 13. СИЛА на експлозия force/shock of an explosion 14. СИЛА на звук volume/intensity of a sound 15. СИЛА на мускулите muscular strength 16. СИЛА на притеглянето физ. attraction 17. СИЛА на светлината/ на електрически ток intensity of light/of an electric current 18. СИЛА на сцеплението физ. cohesion 19. СИЛА на съпротивлението физ. resistance 20. СИЛА на тежестта физ. gravity 21. СИЛА на удар shock of a blow 22. СИЛАта на младостта the vigour of youth 23. СИЛАта на паметта the tenacity of memory 24. СИЛАта на примера the power of example 25. СИЛАта на слънцето the power of the sun 26. викам с все СИЛА cry at the top of o.'s voice 27. възстановявам силите си restore o.'s forces/energies, recover o.'s strength 28. вътрешна СИЛА inner power 29. вътрешни сили internal resources 30. гравитационна СИЛА attraction of gravity 31. грубаСИЛА brute force 32. губя сили lose strength, grow weaker, break up 33. давамСИЛА на lend force/strength to 34. двигателна/електродвижеща/ ударна СИЛА rootive/elеctromotive/striking power 35. жизнена СИЛА vigour, vitality 36. защитни сили на организма staying powers, forces/powers of resistance 37. изчерпвам силите на exhaust the power/strength of 38. конска СИЛА horse power (съкр. h. p.) 39. намирам сили в себе си find the strength, find enough strength in o.s., trust o.s., have it in one, find it in one (да to) 40. напрягам всички сили strain every muscle 41. напрягам силите си, работя свръх силите си strain o.s. 42. напълно по силите на well within the reach of 43. не ми останаха сили разг. I am quite knocked up 44. не мога да намеря сили да I can't bring myself to 45. не но силите на beyond the powers of;too much for 46. нямам вече сили, не са ми оставали сили, на края на силите си съм have no strength left, разг. be at the end of o.'s tether 47. нямам сили да be too weak to 48. пазя силите си keep o.'s strength 49. пестя силите си save o.'s energies 50. поглъщам всичките сили на някого absorb all o.'s energies 51. политика от позиция на СИЛА a-position-of-strength policy 52. послужвам си със СИЛА use force, take violent action 53. правя всичко, което ми е по силите do everything within o.'s power 54. разг. this beats me 55. разг. with tooth and nail 56. с все/всичка СИЛА, с всички сили violently;with all o.'s might, with might and main;for all one is worth 57. с последни сили by a last effort 58. силите ми ме напускат my strength is failing me/is giving way 59. скрита СИЛА hidden strength 60. скрити сили hidden forces, latent powers 61. според силите си, доколкото ми стигат силите as much as one is able, according to o.'s powers, to the best of o.'s power/ability, to the utmost of o.'s capacity;as far as o.'s powers go, to the extent of o.'s powers 62. събирам сили work up/gather/ muster strength 63. със СИЛА by main force, (насилствено) forcibly, through violence 64. със собствени сили by о.'s own efforts 65. творчески сили creative powers 66. това не ми е по силите I am not equal to/not up to this, it is beyond my powers, it is too much for me 67. тъмни сили dark/sinister forces 68. употреба на СИЛА use of force 69. физическа СИЛА physical force, bodily strength 70. хабя силите си spend/waste o.'s strength, dissipate o.'s energy/energies 71. черпя сили от draw o.'s strength from

    Български-английски речник > сила

  • 13 Miguel I, king

    (1802-1866)
       The third son of King João VI and of Dona Carlota Joaquina, Miguel was barely five years of age when he went to Brazil with the fleeing royal family. In 1821, with his mother and father, he returned to Portugal. Whatever the explanation for his actions, Miguel always took Carlota Joaquina's part in the subsequent political struggles and soon became the supreme hope of the reactionary, clerical, absolutist party against the constitutionalists and opposed any compromise with liberal constitutionalism or its adherents. He became not only the symbol but the essence of a kind of reactionary messianism in Portugal during more than two decades, as his personal fortunes of power and privilege rose and fell. With his personality imbued with traits of wildness, adventurism, and violence, Miguel enjoyed a life largely consumed in horseback riding, love affairs, and bull- fighting.
       After the independence of Brazil (1822), Miguel became the principal candidate for power of the Traditionalist Party, which was determined to restore absolutist royal power, destroy the constitution, and rule without limitation. Miguel was involved in many political conspiracies and armed movements, beginning in 1822 and including the coups known to history as the "Vila Francada" (1823) and the "Abrilada" (1824), which were directed against his father King João VI, in order to restore absolutist royal power. These coup conspiracies failed due to foreign intervention, and the king ordered Miguel dismissed from his posts and sent into exile. He remained in exile for four years. The death of King João VI in 1826 presented new opportunities in the absolutist party, however, and the dashing Dom Miguel remained their great hope for power.
       His older brother King Pedro IV, then emperor of Brazil, inherited the throne and wrote his own constitution, the Charter of 1826, which was to become the law of the land in Portugal. However, his daughter Maria, only seven, was too young to rule, so Pedro, who abdicated, put together an unusual deal. Until Maria reached her majority age, a regency headed by Princess Isabel Maria would rule Portugal. Dom Miguel would return from his Austrian exile and, when Maria reached her majority, Maria would marry her uncle Miguel and they would reign under the 1826 Charter. Miguel returned to Portugal in 1828, but immediately broke the bargain. He proclaimed himself an absolutist King, acclaimed by the usual (and last) Cortes of 1828; dispensed with Pedro's Charter; and ruled as an absolutist. Pedro's response was to abdicate the emperorship of Brazil, return to Portugal, defeat Miguel, and place his young daughter on the throne. In the civil war called the War of the Brothers (1831-34), after a seesaw campaign on land and at sea, Miguel's forces were defeated and he went into exile, never to return to Portugal.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Miguel I, king

  • 14 तारा _tārā

    तारा 1 A star or planet in general; हंसश्रेणीषु तारासु R.4.19; Bh.1 15.
    -2 A fixed star; Y.3.172; R. 6.22.
    -3 The pupil of the eye, the eye-ball; कान्तामन्तः- प्रमोदादभिसरति मदभ्रान्ततारश्चकोरः Māl.9.3; विस्मयस्मेरतारैः 1.28; Ku.3.47.
    -4 A pearl.
    -5 (in Sāṅkhya Phil.) One of the 8 Siddhis.
    -6 (in music) N. of a Rāga of six notes.
    -7 A kind of perfume.
    -8 (a) N. of the wife of Vāli, king of the monkeys, and mother of Aṅgada. She in vain tried to dissuade her husband Vāli from fighting with Rāma and Sugrīva, and married Sugrīva after Vāli had been killed by Rāma. (b) N. of the wife of Bṛihaspati, the preceptor of the gods. She was on one occasion carried off by Soma (the moon) who refused to deliver her up to her husband when demanded. A fierce contest then ensued, and Brahmā had at last to compel Soma to restore her to her husband. Tārā gave birth to a son named Budha who became the ancestor of the Lunar race of kings (see Bhāg.9.14). (c) N. of the wife of Hariśchandra and mother of Rohidāsa (also called Tārāmatī). (d) N. of a Buddha goddess. (e) N. of a Śakti; Jaina.
    -Comp. -अधिपः 1 the moon; Ku.7.48; Bh.1.71.
    -2 Śiva.
    -3 Bṛihas- pati.
    -4 Vāli.
    -5 Sugrīva.
    -आपीडः the moon.
    -आभः quicksilver.
    -ग्रहः one of the 5 lesser planets exclusive of the sun and moon; Bṛi.S.69.1.
    -पतिः 1 the moon R.13.76.
    -2 Vāli.
    -3 Bṛihaspati.
    -4 Śiva.
    -पथः the atmosphere, firmament, sky.
    -प्रमाणम् sidereal measure, sidereal time.
    -भूषा the night.
    -मण्डलम् 1 the starry region, the zodiac.
    -2 the pupil of the eye.
    -3 (लः) A kind of Śiva temple.
    -मृगः the constellation मृगशिरस्
    -मैत्रकम् 'the friendship of the stars', sponta- neous or unaccountable love; Māl.7.4; U.5.
    -वर्षम् falling stars.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > तारा _tārā

  • 15 время восстановления

    1. recovery time
    2. restoration time
    3. restoring time

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > время восстановления

  • 16 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 17 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

  • 18 работа

    авиационные работы
    aerial work
    безотказная работа
    1. rtouble-free operation
    2. no-failure operation взлет на режимах работы двигателей, составляющих наименьший шум
    noise abatement takeoff
    восстанавливать работу системы
    restore the system
    выбор режима работы двигателя
    selection of engine mode
    выполнять работу на воздушном судне
    work on the aircraft
    допуск к работе в качестве пилота
    act as a pilot authority
    карта выполнения регламентных работ
    scheduled maintenance task card
    максимально допустимое время работы
    operation time limit
    механизм синхронизации работы воздушного винта
    propeller synchronization mechanism
    механизм согласования работы створок
    doors sequence mechanism
    нарушать работу
    impair the operation
    непараллельная работа
    unparalleled operation
    несимметрическая работа закрылков
    asymmetric flaps operation
    опыт летной работы
    1. flying experience
    2. flying proficiency опыт работы в авиации
    aeronautical experience
    останов при работе на малом газе
    idle cutoff
    параллельная работа
    paralleled operation
    параметр работы силовой установки
    propulsion parameter
    перебои в работе двигателя
    1. engine trouble
    2. rough engine operations переключатель выбора режима работы автопилота
    autopilot mode selector
    переключатель режимов работы
    mode selector switch
    периодичность проведения регламентных работ
    scheduled maintenance frequency
    поисково-спасательные работы
    1. search and rescue works
    2. search and rescue operations полет для выполнения работ
    1. aerial work flight
    2. aerial work operation проведение работ по снижению высоты препятствий для полетов
    obstacle clearing
    продолжительность работы двигателя на взлетном режиме
    full-thrust duration
    работа в режиме запуска двигателя
    engine start mode
    работа двигателя
    engine running
    работа двигателя на режиме малого газа
    idling engine operation
    работа на малом газе
    light running
    работа на режиме холостого хода
    idle running
    работа на смежных диапазонах
    cross-band operation
    работа только в режиме приема
    receiving only
    работы по техническому обслуживанию
    maintenance operations
    регламентные работы
    scheduled tasks
    регламентный работы
    maintenance check
    режим работы
    rating
    режим работы автопилота по заданному курсу
    autopilot heading mode
    режим работы с полной нагрузкой
    full-load conditions
    симметричная работа закрылков
    symmetric flap operation
    система автоматического управления параллельной работой генераторов
    generator autoparalleling system
    система контроля за работой визуальных средств
    system of monitoring visual aids
    (на аэродроме) снижать режим работы двигателя
    slow down an engine
    снижение режима работы
    throttle retarding
    спасательные работы
    1. salvage
    2. rescue 3. rescue fighting строительные работы с помощью авиации
    construction work operations
    схема последовательности работы
    sequence-of-operation diagram
    табло режимов работы
    mode annunciator
    тормозной режим работы
    retardation mode
    указатель режима работы
    mode indicator
    условия работы экипажа
    crew environment
    установка режима работы двигателя
    throttle setting
    цифровой электронный регулятор режимов работы двигателя
    digital engine control
    чрезвычайный режим работы
    contingency rating
    элеронный режим работы
    aileron mode

    Русско-английский авиационный словарь > работа

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